RECAPITULATION

During its history, the religion of Islam passed through various stages which left their mark, one way or another, on the structure of this religion, its laws and civilisation. The original features of the religion as it first appeared in the early Muslim community underwent certain changes (in different ways) which affected its primitive form. This, however, does not apply in every instance. There are still a few cases of Islamic communities close to the oldest form of Islam which exist today, and which struggled hard throughout history to preserve that distinctive early character. This is evident in one of the oldest sects in Islam, the Ibadhis.

Contrary to what is generally held, they (the Ibadhis) were not a branch of the Kharijite movement, moderate or otherwise, but, as appears to me through the study of Sunni as well as sectarian Islam, the Ibadhis seem to represent the pristine spirit of the religion of Islam struggling in the face of the political and social changes caused by the rapid expansion of the Islamic empire.

The building of the new empire made it imperative that the role of power in its material forms should occupy the first place. The pre-Islamic measures for obtaining power started to re-appear and replace the new values established by the new religion of Islam. It was through the office of the third Caliph, Uthman b. Affan that the Umayyads made their way to the important positions in the government. Marwan b. al-Hakam, who had been exiled by the Prophet and remained in exile during the Caliphate of Abu Bakr and Umar, was brought back to Medina by Uthman and became one of the closest and most influential figures in Uthman's court. So also Abdullah b. Sad b. Abi Sarh, who was ordered by the Prophet to be executed on the day of the conquest of Mecca, but was protected and given refuge by Uthman, became his governor of Egypt. This way of controlling affairs during the last six years of Uthman put more power in the hands of his kinsmen, and to some extent aroused the anger and resentment of Muslims in various places. They gathered from far and wide and came to Medina, the capital of the Caliphate at that time to change what they regarded as erroneous policy. This move brought about the death of Uthman, and soon Ali b. Abi Talib was elected fourth Caliph in Medina. At this point commenced the endless civil wars among Muslims. Although the parties which arose immediately follow the path of Uthman tried to justify their struggle for power by religious arguments, it soon became clear that the issue was a straight fight for the Office of the Caliphate as the highest post in the new empire, or, according to the satirical expression of Malik b. Anas, "By God, they fought for nothing but a dust coloured mess of tharid, (al-tharid al-a'far)"1

After Ali had settled his account with Talhah and al-Zubair, he had to face